Learning Objectives
Read unfamiliar sources strategically and identify claims, evidence, perspectives, facts, opinions, generalisations, predictions, values, bias and vested interests.
Read With A Purpose
Do not read the insert as if it were a story. Each source has a writer, purpose, audience, claim, perspective and type of evidence. While reading, ask what the source is trying to make the reader believe and how it attempts to do this.
Begin by scanning the question paper. This tells you which sources are linked to each task. Then read the insert and annotate only information that may help answer those tasks.
A Simple Annotation Code
Suggested Symbols
- C = main claim or conclusion.
- R = reason supporting the claim.
- E = evidence or example.
- P = perspective or viewpoint.
- V = value or principle.
- B = possible bias or vested interest.
- G = generalisation.
- A = proposed action.
- Q = information whose reliability should be questioned.
Use brief symbols rather than writing long notes. The purpose of annotation is to reduce rereading and make useful material easy to locate.
Claim, Reason And Evidence
Claim
A claim is a statement presented as true. A main claim is often the central conclusion the writer wants the audience to accept.
Reason
A reason explains why the claim should be accepted. A reason can itself require evidence.
Evidence
Evidence is information used to support or challenge a claim. It may include statistics, research findings, examples, testimony, observation or documented experience.
Original Example
Claim: Schools should restrict smartphone use during lessons. Reason: Notifications interrupt concentration. Evidence: A classroom study found that students completed fewer tasks when phones were visible and active.
Fact And Opinion
A fact is a statement that can be checked against evidence. An opinion expresses a judgement, belief or preference. A fact can still be inaccurate if the evidence is poor, and an opinion can be reasonable if it is supported.
Distinguishing Them
- Fact-type statement: The survey included 400 students.
- Opinion: The policy is unfair.
- Supported opinion: The policy is unfair because it applies penalties to students who need phones for medical monitoring.
Generalisations
A generalisation extends a claim too broadly. It may suggest that something is always true, or use a small or narrow sample to make a claim about a much larger population.
Original Example
After interviewing six commuters in one city, a researcher writes, “People everywhere prefer travelling by car.” This is a generalisation because the small local sample cannot reliably represent people everywhere.
Look For Absolute Language
Words such as everyone, nobody, always, never and all can signal a generalisation, but context matters. Do not label a statement merely because it contains an absolute word; explain why the evidence cannot support such a broad claim.
Predictions
A prediction states what is expected to happen in the future. Predictions should be judged by the quality of the assumptions, data and model supporting them. A confident tone does not make a prediction reliable.
When analysing a prediction, ask whether the trend is likely to continue, whether alternative outcomes were considered and whether important conditions could change.
Values
A value is a belief about what is important, desirable or morally right. Values often explain why people support different actions even when they accept the same facts.
Different Values
One person may value economic growth and support a new factory. Another may value environmental protection and oppose it. Their disagreement is partly about priorities, not only factual information.
Bias And Vested Interest
Bias
Bias is a tendency to present an issue in a way that favours one side. Bias may appear through selective evidence, loaded language, omission of alternatives or an unbalanced choice of sources.
Vested Interest
A vested interest is a personal, financial, professional or political reason to prefer a particular outcome.
A vested interest does not automatically make a source false. It gives a reason to examine the evidence more carefully. A company may have accurate data about its product while still benefiting from presenting the data positively.
Language And Tone
Language can make an argument sound stronger without improving its evidence. Look for emotive words, exaggeration, rhetorical questions, certainty, ridicule and appeals to fear or hope.
Measured And Emotive Language
- Measured: The proposal may reduce traffic, although its cost needs further study.
- Emotive: Only a heartless government would refuse this obvious solution.
Measured language can increase credibility because it recognises uncertainty. Emotive language may engage an audience but can also weaken objectivity if it replaces evidence.
Understanding Perspective
A perspective is more than one opinion. It is a position shaped by beliefs, values, experiences and assumptions. To describe a perspective fully, identify the issue, the position taken, reasons, values, consequences and preferred actions.
Perspective Formula
Perspective = position on the issue + reasons or causes + values or priorities + expected consequences + preferred action.
Source Relevance
A source can be credible but irrelevant to the exact question. For example, a reliable report about national internet use may not answer a question about the effect of social media on the mental health of younger teenagers. Always connect the source detail to the task.
Practice Source
Original Practice
A city cycling organisation states: “Traffic pollution is damaging every child’s health. Our members have shown that cycling is the only sensible way to travel. The city must immediately replace two traffic lanes with cycle lanes.” Identify the main claim, one possible generalisation, the organisation’s value, one possible vested interest and the proposed action.
Suggested Analysis
- Main claim: the city should replace two traffic lanes with cycle lanes.
- Possible generalisation: pollution is damaging every child’s health, because the statement applies the effect universally without showing evidence for every child.
- Value: public health and sustainable transport.
- Possible vested interest: the organisation represents cyclists and benefits from more cycling facilities.
- Action: replace traffic lanes with cycle lanes.
Exam Checklist
- I can distinguish claims, reasons and evidence.
- I can explain why a statement is a generalisation.
- I can identify values and possible vested interests.
- I can describe a perspective rather than quote one opinion.
- I can comment on tone without treating language as evidence.
Lesson Summary
- Read sources according to the demands of the questions.
- Annotate claims, reasons, evidence, perspectives, values and actions.
- A generalisation makes a claim broader than the evidence justifies.
- Bias and vested interest are reasons for closer evaluation, not automatic proof that a source is false.
- A perspective includes a position, reasoning, values and preferred actions.
- Language should be evaluated separately from the strength of evidence.
